In addition to the 3Rs advancement efforts by US federal agencies and validation centers, several independent charitable and academic centers also operate with similar mandates. These include:
Alternatives Research & Development Foundation
The Alternatives Research & Development Foundation (ARDF) was established by the American Anti-Vivisection Society in 1993 to provide an independent, charitable vehicle for its alternatives research funding program. The stated ARDF mission is to fund and promote the development, validation and adoption of non-animal methods in biomedical research, product testing and education. Since its inception, ARDF has provided more than $1.5 million dollars in direct funding of alternatives research. In 2007, six grants were awarded, including the following of relevance to regulatory toxicology:
- In vitro model for cytotoxicity using mouse embryonic stem cells
- Embryonic stem cell-derived human oligodendrocytes for assessment of neurotoxicity in vitro
- Human embryonic stem cell model to predict neural tube birth defects
ARDF also funds educational activities that advance alternatives. It sponsors scientific meetings such as the World Congresses on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences, and supports the online alternatives resource site, Altweb.
In addition to its funding programs, ARDF advocates for public policy that advances alternatives. For example, having funded successful development of a practical in vitro alternative to ascites production of monoclonal antibodies, ARDF petitioned the National Institutes of Health in 1997-98 for a ban on the ascites method. While NIH did not agree to the ban, it informed all NIH-funded research facilities that in vitro monoclonal antibody production was to be considered the default method, with justification required for the use of animals.
Institute for In Vitro Sciences
The Institute for In Vitro Sciences (IIVS) is a technology-driven charitable organization created to advance the development, validation and use in vitro methods in toxicology. Since its founding in 1997, IIVS has come to be recognized as a leading national and international authority on the 3Rs and toxicology through the following program activities:
- Laboratory services: IIVS contract testing services provide "rapid, high quality in vitro testing for broad sectors of industry and government" in the areas of skin and eye irritation/corrosivity, phototoxicity, embryotoxicity, percutaneous absorption, basal cytotoxicity, and other specialized areas where feasible.
- Assay development and validation: IIVS "develops custom, cell-based assays measuring efficacy/potency of specialty chemicals, drugs, and biologics" and "has experience in managing programs for optimization of assay systems … and in managing prevalidation and validation projects for groups of companies interested in bringing a system forward for regulatory acceptance." IIVS has served as a participating laboratory in multiple prevalidation and validation efforts, and is currently a member of the EU integrated project ACuteTox, which aims to optimize and prevalidate an in vitro testing strategy for predicting acute toxicity in humans.
- Education and training: IIVS provides its clients and other stakeholders with a range of education and training opportunities, including hands-on practical demonstrations designed for new users, as well as more involved "technical workshops" and "user groups" of experts in a particular assay. The goal of all IIVS outreach efforts is "to improve and expedite in vitro method development and validation through cooperation, exchange of information, and training."
- Advocacy: IIVS also "strives to coordinate various efforts taking place in the field nationally and harmonize them with international activities." To this end, IIVS representatives have been appointed to a range of US federal advisory committees and international scientific task forces.
International QSAR Foundation to Reduce Animal Testing
Established in 2004 by a former US Environmental Protection Agency senior scientist and program manager, the International QSAR Foundation (IQF) is currently the only charitable research entity working to develop quantitative structure-activity relationship ((Q)SAR) and other in silico models as non-animal alternatives for identifying chemical hazards. The stated mission of the IQF is "to serve as a focal point on non-testing alternative methods to:
- build a scientific consensus on the best approaches to predict the outcomes of animal tests;
- make quality data from past animal tests more accessible to scientists throughout the world;
- create new methods to predict chemical hazards which currently can not be adequately predicted
- demonstrate the reliability of QSAR-based methods in setting priorities for use of testing alternatives."
Central to the Foundation's consensus-building mission is the organization of focused workshops to bring together experts from the regulatory, regulated, academic, and other stakeholder communities to identify barriers to the acceptance of alternative approaches, as well as priorities for research to overcome these barriers. To this end, IQF devotes at least half of its research budget to targeted project grants, particularly in the following key areas: inhalation toxicity, aquatic toxicity, skin and lung sensitization, reproductive toxicity, environmental persistence and bioaccumulation potential.
Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing
The Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) was established in 1981 as part of the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health with a mission to:
- Provide grants and awards for 3Rs research: Since its inception, CAAT's grants program has provided upwards of $6 million in direct funding in support of more than 300 research projects related to the 3Rs. In addition, CAAT has established the following recognition awards, which are presented on an annual or semi-annual basis:
- Animal Welfare Enhancement Awards, valued at $6,000, to recognize improvements in the "housing, handling and/or experimental situations for laboratory animals."
- Charles River Laboratories Excellence in Refinement Award, valued at $5,000, to "honor an individual who has made an outstanding contribution to the development, promotion and/or implementation of refinement alternatives."
- Recognition Award, which "honors an individual or organization who has made an outstanding contribution to the field of the 3Rs."
- Henry Spira Award, which honors "activists in the animal welfare, protection, or rights' movements who work to achieve progress through dialogue and collaboration."
- Disseminate reliable information about alternative methods: A central tool in CAAT's communication efforts is Altweb, an expansive online clearinghouse for information on alternatives to animal testing.
- Organize workshops and symposia to promote dialogue and progress: Beginning in 1989, CAAT hosted a series of eight technical meetings on such diverse topics as structure-activity relationships, the international status of in vitro test method validation, and humane endpoints. In 1999, CAAT launched a series of flagship workshops called TestSmart, which included TestSmart-HPV (April 1999), TestSmart-Endocrine Disruptors (February 2001 and February 2002), TestSmart-Pharmaceuticals (May 2001), and most recently, TestSmart-DNT (March 2006).
University of California Center for Animal Alternatives Information
Based at the University of California at Davis, the UC Center for Animal Alternatives Information operates principally as an information resource for university administrators, scientists, students, and others with an interest in animal welfare and the 3Rs. Specific objectives of the Center include:
- "To act as coordinating office for the UCD campus on improved and alternative methods for the use of animals" and to "[c]oordinate a program of information and dissemination regarding approaches for alternative methods and the sharing of written and electronic materials and information."
- "To create, maintain and provide access to up-to-date resources and library materials on animal alternatives that is easily accessible to UC faculty, staff and students."
- "To offer outreach and educational activities regarding new developments in animal alternatives, providing leadership to the public and other educational institutions."
- "Within the context of the responsible conduct of science, to create a forum for discussion of ethical issues and dilemmas involving animal use."
- "To encourage use of teaching methods and materials incorporating alternatives at all educational levels."
The Center's website includes resources such as a guide to relevant databases, tips on appropriate literature reviews, alternatives in education, humane endpoints, and more.
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